{
 "paper": "1080 Learner: Design Rationale and Evidence Base (Research Edition, October 2026)",
 "note": "Every source was opened on 5 October 2026. Each quote is word for word from the opened source, 25 words or fewer.",
 "claims": {
  "F01": {
   "claim": "In the formative-assessment research, an assessment counts as formative only when its evidence is actually used to change the next teaching step.",
   "authors_year": "Black & Wiliam (1998)",
   "source_title": "Inside the Black Box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan 80(2) (open reprint on kappanonline.org)",
   "url": "https://kappanonline.org/inside-the-black-box-raising-standards-through-classroom-assessment/",
   "page": "Section \"The Argument\" (definition paragraph)",
   "quote": "Such assessment becomes formative assessment when the evidence is actually used to adapt the teaching to meet student needs.",
   "quote_words": 19,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F02": {
   "claim": "Black and Wiliam's 1998 review reported typical effect sizes of 0.4 to 0.7 for formative assessment experiments. These are effects of formative classroom practice in general, not of any product, and they say nothing about 1080.",
   "authors_year": "Black & Wiliam (1998)",
   "source_title": "Inside the Black Box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan 80(2) (open reprint on kappanonline.org)",
   "url": "https://kappanonline.org/inside-the-black-box-raising-standards-through-classroom-assessment/",
   "page": "Section \"Does Improving Formative Assessment Raise Standards?\"",
   "quote": "Typical effect sizes of the formative assessment experiments were between 0.4 and 0.7.",
   "quote_words": 13,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F03": {
   "claim": "Feedback improves learning when it gives specific guidance on strengths and weaknesses, preferably without an overall mark.",
   "authors_year": "Black & Wiliam (1998)",
   "source_title": "Inside the Black Box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan 80(2) (open reprint on kappanonline.org)",
   "url": "https://kappanonline.org/inside-the-black-box-raising-standards-through-classroom-assessment/",
   "page": "Section \"How Can We Improve Formative Assessment?\" (subsection \"The evolution of effective teaching\")",
   "quote": "Feedback has been shown to improve learning when it gives each pupil specific guidance on strengths and weaknesses, preferably without any overall marks.",
   "quote_words": 23,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F04": {
   "claim": "In Butler's study of 132 students (\"year 7\" in Wiliam's account) in 12 classes in four Israeli schools, working on divergent-thinking tasks (not math), as described in Wiliam (2005), comments alone raised later performance, while adding marks to the comments removed that benefit. (Wiliam's text dates the study 1998; his reference list gives Butler 1988, British Journal of Educational Psychology 58.)",
   "authors_year": "Wiliam (2005)",
   "source_title": "Keeping learning on track: formative assessment and the regulation of learning. Paper, 20th biennial meeting of the Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers, Sydney",
   "url": "https://www.dylanwiliam.org/Dylan_Wiliams_website/Papers_files/AAMT%2005%20paper%20%28US%29.pdf",
   "page": "p. 6, section \"The quality of feedback\"",
   "quote": "giving marks alongside the comments completely washed out the beneficial effects of the comments.",
   "quote_words": 14,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F05": {
   "claim": "A major review of feedback research lists grades or overall scores that show a student's standing relative to peers among the feedback features that tend to impede learning.",
   "authors_year": "Shute (2007)",
   "source_title": "Focus on Formative Feedback. ETS Research Report RR-07-11 (later published in Review of Educational Research, 2008)",
   "url": "https://myweb.fsu.edu/vshute/pdf/shute%202007_f.pdf",
   "page": "p. 6 (Section 3, \"Feedback and learning\")",
   "quote": "Other features of feedback that tend to impede learning include providing grades or overall scores indicating the student's standing relative to peers",
   "quote_words": 22,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F06": {
   "claim": "Honest limit: researchers who meta-analysed the feedback studies describe the findings as inconsistent and highly variable, so no single feedback design is guaranteed to work.",
   "authors_year": "Shute (2007)",
   "source_title": "Focus on Formative Feedback. ETS Research Report RR-07-11 (later published in Review of Educational Research, 2008)",
   "url": "https://myweb.fsu.edu/vshute/pdf/shute%202007_f.pdf",
   "page": "p. 5 (Section 3, \"Feedback and learning\")",
   "quote": "Researchers who have tackled the tough task of performing meta-analyses on the feedback data use descriptors such as inconsistent, contradictory, and highly variable",
   "quote_words": 23,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F07": {
   "claim": "Honest limit: in Sleeman et al. (1989), as described by Shute, remediation built on a model of the student's specific errors was not more effective than simply re-teaching the algebra content.",
   "authors_year": "Shute (2007)",
   "source_title": "Focus on Formative Feedback. ETS Research Report RR-07-11 (later published in Review of Educational Research, 2008)",
   "url": "https://myweb.fsu.edu/vshute/pdf/shute%202007_f.pdf",
   "page": "p. 11 (feedback complexity; Sleeman et al., 1989, Cognitive Science 13)",
   "quote": "for procedural skills in algebra, feedback based on just re-teaching content was as effective as feedback based on more expensive error analyses.",
   "quote_words": 22,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F08": {
   "claim": "Diagnostic-item researchers define a misconception by consistency: a conception that is reliably activated in a situation, not a single wrong answer (which could be a guess).",
   "authors_year": "Wylie & Wiliam (2007)",
   "source_title": "Analyzing diagnostic items: What makes a student response interpretable? NCME conference paper, ETS (title page reads \"April 2006, Chicago\"; ETS copyright 2007; listed as NCME 2007 on the author site)",
   "url": "https://www.dylanwiliam.org/Dylan_Wiliams_website/Papers_files/DIMS%20%28NCME%202007%29.pdf",
   "page": "p. 3, section \"Development of DIMS questions\"",
   "quote": "a misconception is any conception that is consistently activated in a particular situation, and that results in a student giving an incorrect or incomplete response.",
   "quote_words": 25,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F09": {
   "claim": "A single ability estimate is of limited use for teaching decisions, because two students with the same estimate can hold different ideas; the authors conclude the teacher needs a classification of thinking, not a measurement.",
   "authors_year": "Wylie & Wiliam (2007)",
   "source_title": "Analyzing diagnostic items: What makes a student response interpretable? NCME conference paper, ETS (title page reads \"April 2006, Chicago\"; ETS copyright 2007; listed as NCME 2007 on the author site)",
   "url": "https://www.dylanwiliam.org/Dylan_Wiliams_website/Papers_files/DIMS%20%28NCME%202007%29.pdf",
   "page": "p. 6, section \"DIMS Items Meet Traditional Psychometrics\"",
   "quote": "ability estimates by themselves are of limited value in instructional decision-making because two students with similar ability may hold completely different views",
   "quote_words": 22,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F10": {
   "claim": "In the DIMS project (US Institute of Education Sciences-funded diagnostic items in math and science), every multiple-choice item was written so that at least one wrong option maps to a known misconception (\"distractor-driven\" items).",
   "authors_year": "Wylie & Wiliam (2007)",
   "source_title": "Analyzing diagnostic items: What makes a student response interpretable? NCME conference paper, ETS (title page reads \"April 2006, Chicago\"; ETS copyright 2007; listed as NCME 2007 on the author site)",
   "url": "https://www.dylanwiliam.org/Dylan_Wiliams_website/Papers_files/DIMS%20%28NCME%202007%29.pdf",
   "page": "p. 3, section \"Development of DIMS questions\"",
   "quote": "at least one misconception is addressed by every diagnostic item, so that the items are, in a sense distractor-driven (Sadler, 1995).",
   "quote_words": 21,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F11": {
   "claim": "Sadler's (1998) distractor-driven astronomy items, as described in Wylie and Wiliam, showed a misconception-based wrong option attracting students just below average more than the lowest performers, so right/wrong totals can hide what students believe.",
   "authors_year": "Wylie & Wiliam (2007)",
   "source_title": "Analyzing diagnostic items: What makes a student response interpretable? NCME conference paper, ETS (title page reads \"April 2006, Chicago\"; ETS copyright 2007; listed as NCME 2007 on the author site)",
   "url": "https://www.dylanwiliam.org/Dylan_Wiliams_website/Papers_files/DIMS%20%28NCME%202007%29.pdf",
   "page": "pp. 4-5 (Figure 1 discussion; Sadler 1998, Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35(3), as described)",
   "quote": "for students just below average ability, the probability of a correct response is almost 20 percentage points lower",
   "quote_words": 18,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F12": {
   "claim": "Diagnostic questions are multiple-choice items whose wrong answers are each chosen to reveal a common misconception, so a wrong answer tells the teacher something specific.",
   "authors_year": "Wang, Lamb, Saveliev, ... Barton, Peyton Jones, Woodhead & Zhang (2020)",
   "source_title": "Instructions and Guide for Diagnostic Questions: The NeurIPS 2020 Education Challenge. arXiv:2007.12061",
   "url": "https://arxiv.org/pdf/2007.12061",
   "page": "PDF p. 3, section \"Background\" (the quote is in the PDF, not on the arXiv abstract page)",
   "quote": "If a student gets a diagnostic question wrong, educators are not left to guess why.",
   "quote_words": 15,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F12b": {
   "claim": "Wang et al. note that good diagnostic questions, in which every wrong answer is a plausible distractor, are challenging to write.",
   "authors_year": "Wang, Lamb, Saveliev, ... Barton, Peyton Jones, Woodhead & Zhang (2020)",
   "source_title": "Instructions and Guide for Diagnostic Questions: The NeurIPS 2020 Education Challenge. arXiv:2007.12061",
   "url": "https://arxiv.org/pdf/2007.12061",
   "page": "PDF p. 4",
   "quote": "It is challenging to write good diagnostic questions, where each of the incorrect answers is a plausible distractor.",
   "quote_words": 18,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F13": {
   "claim": "Discussing a pair of TIMSS fraction items, Wiliam argues that many students could answer the easier one correctly using a wrong rule (smallest denominator means largest fraction), inferring this from the response percentages, so a correct answer alone can hide a misconception.",
   "authors_year": "Wiliam (2005)",
   "source_title": "Keeping learning on track: formative assessment and the regulation of learning. Paper, 20th biennial meeting of the Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers, Sydney",
   "url": "https://www.dylanwiliam.org/Dylan_Wiliams_website/Papers_files/AAMT%2005%20paper%20%28US%29.pdf",
   "page": "pp. 1-2, section \"What makes a good question?\"",
   "quote": "In this sense, the first item is a much weaker item than the second, because many students can get it right for the wrong reasons.",
   "quote_words": 25,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F14": {
   "claim": "Diagnostic-item researchers argue items should start from the teacher's next decision (\"decision-pull\"): wrong answers should show what is not understood and, ideally, what to do about it.",
   "authors_year": "Wylie & Wiliam (2006)",
   "source_title": "Diagnostic questions: Is there value in just one? AERA/NCME conference paper, ETS, San Francisco",
   "url": "https://www.dylanwiliam.org/Dylan_Wiliams_website/Papers_files/DIMS%20%28NCME%202006%29.pdf",
   "page": "p. 3, section \"Characteristics of 'Decision-Pull' Questions\"",
   "quote": "Incorrect responses assist the teacher diagnose what students do not understand, and, ideally, provide ideas about what to do about this.",
   "quote_words": 21,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F15": {
   "claim": "Ontario's assessment policy defines assessment for learning as using evidence to decide where learners are, where they need to go and how best to get there.",
   "authors_year": "Ontario Ministry of Education (2010)",
   "source_title": "Growing Success: Assessment, Evaluation, and Reporting in Ontario Schools, First Edition, Covering Grades 1 to 12",
   "url": "https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/growSuccess.pdf",
   "page": "Chapter 4, p. 31, Table 4.1 (quoting Assessment Reform Group, 2002)",
   "quote": "seeking and interpreting evidence for use by learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go",
   "quote_words": 25,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F16": {
   "claim": "Growing Success describes descriptive feedback as precise information on what the student does well, what needs improvement and specific steps to improve.",
   "authors_year": "Ontario Ministry of Education (2010)",
   "source_title": "Growing Success: Assessment, Evaluation, and Reporting in Ontario Schools, First Edition, Covering Grades 1 to 12",
   "url": "https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/growSuccess.pdf",
   "page": "Chapter 4, p. 34, section \"Providing Descriptive Feedback\"",
   "quote": "providing them with precise information about what they are doing well, what needs improvement, and what specific steps they can take to improve",
   "quote_words": 23,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F17": {
   "claim": "Ontario policy asks teachers to triangulate evidence from observation, conversations and student products rather than rely on one source.",
   "authors_year": "Ontario Ministry of Education (2010)",
   "source_title": "Growing Success: Assessment, Evaluation, and Reporting in Ontario Schools, First Edition, Covering Grades 1 to 12",
   "url": "https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/growSuccess.pdf",
   "page": "Chapter 4, p. 34, section \"Eliciting Information about Student Learning\"",
   "quote": "These strategies should be triangulated to include observation, student-teacher conversations, and student products.",
   "quote_words": 13,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "F18": {
   "claim": "In England's 2016 teacher-workload review, 53% of a sample of respondents to the Workload Challenge survey said the nature, depth and frequency of marking was burdensome; the review (p. 5, para. 5) found very little evidence that extensive written comments improve long-term outcomes.",
   "authors_year": "Independent Teacher Workload Review Group, Department for Education, England (2016)",
   "source_title": "Eliminating unnecessary workload around marking (March 2016)",
   "url": "https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a75129f40f0b6360e47322f/Eliminating-unnecessary-workload-around-marking.pdf",
   "page": "p. 6, para. 9, section \"What is the problem?\"",
   "quote": "53% of sample respondents thought that, whilst marking pupils' work is necessary and productive, the excessive nature, depth and frequency of marking was burdensome.",
   "quote_words": 24,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D01": {
   "claim": "The National Research Council's 2001 report on assessment calls assessment a process of reasoning from evidence, and it says the results are only estimates of what a person knows and can do.",
   "authors_year": "National Research Council (2001)",
   "source_title": "Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment (National Academies Press; doi:10.17226/10019), Ch. 2 'The Nature of Assessment and Reasoning from Evidence'",
   "url": "https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/10019/chapter/4",
   "page": "p. 53 (chapter conclusions)",
   "quote": "One such principle is that assessment is always a process of reasoning from evidence.",
   "quote_words": 14,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D02": {
   "claim": "The same report says the information an assessment produces is typically incomplete and inconclusive, and can usually be explained in more than one way.",
   "authors_year": "National Research Council (2001)",
   "source_title": "Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment (National Academies Press; doi:10.17226/10019), Ch. 2, section 'Precision and Imprecision in Assessment'",
   "url": "https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/10019/chapter/4",
   "page": "p. 42",
   "quote": "the information produced by an assessment is typically incomplete, inconclusive, and amenable to more than one explanation.",
   "quote_words": 17,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D03": {
   "claim": "The report describes an assessment result as an estimate drawn from a small sample of everything a learner knows and can do. It adds that results can vary for reasons unrelated to achievement, such as item format, timing or the student's health that day.",
   "authors_year": "National Research Council (2001)",
   "source_title": "Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment (National Academies Press; doi:10.17226/10019), Ch. 2, section 'Precision and Imprecision in Assessment'",
   "url": "https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/10019/chapter/4",
   "page": "p. 42",
   "quote": "an assessment result is an estimate, based on samples of knowledge and performance",
   "quote_words": 13,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D04": {
   "claim": "The NRC 'assessment triangle' says every assessment rests on three linked elements: a model of how students learn (cognition), the tasks that provide evidence (observation) and a method for making sense of that evidence (interpretation). The report says these must be designed together.",
   "authors_year": "National Research Council (2001)",
   "source_title": "Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment (National Academies Press; doi:10.17226/10019), Ch. 2 conclusions",
   "url": "https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/10019/chapter/4",
   "page": "p. 54 (triangle introduced p. 44)",
   "quote": "These three elements—cognition, observation, and interpretation—must be explicitly connected and designed as a coordinated whole.",
   "quote_words": 15,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D05": {
   "claim": "The NRC report warns that counting wrong answers on unrelated items shows only that something is going wrong, not what. It says naming a specific flawed rule takes more than one item, and a set of items designed to work together.",
   "authors_year": "National Research Council (2001)",
   "source_title": "Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment (National Academies Press; doi:10.17226/10019), Ch. 5 'Implications of the New Foundations for Assessment Design', Box 5-6 discussion",
   "url": "https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/10019/chapter/9",
   "page": "p. 200",
   "quote": "If a student answers three of five separate subtraction questions incorrectly, one can infer only that the student is using some faulty process(es)",
   "quote_words": 23,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D06": {
   "claim": "The NRC report describes multiple-choice items, from the Facets work of Minstrell and Hunt, in which each answer choice is written to match one particular way of thinking. A wrong answer then carries information instead of only being 'wrong'.",
   "authors_year": "National Research Council (2001)",
   "source_title": "Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment (National Academies Press; doi:10.17226/10019), Ch. 5, 'Example: Facets-Based Assessment'",
   "url": "https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/10019/chapter/9",
   "page": "p. 203",
   "quote": "Multiple-choice questions have also been designed to identify facets of student thinking by having each of the answer choices map back to a particular facet.",
   "quote_words": 25,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D07": {
   "claim": "Evidence-centered design (ECD) separates two steps. 'Evidence rules' pick out what matters in a single response. 'Measurement models' then combine that evidence across tasks.",
   "authors_year": "Mislevy, Almond & Lukas (2004 CRESST release; ETS lists the same paper as RR-03-16, 2003)",
   "source_title": "A Brief Introduction to Evidence-Centered Design (CSE Report 632, CRESST/UCLA), section 'How Do We Measure It: The Evidence Model'",
   "url": "https://cresst.org/wp-content/uploads/R632.pdf",
   "page": "p. 10",
   "quote": "evidence rules concern the identification and summary of evidence within tasks, in terms of observable variables.",
   "quote_words": 16,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D08": {
   "claim": "In ECD's four-process delivery model, an Activity Selection process decides which task comes next and when the assessment stops. In adaptive assessments it does so using the current state of what is known about the student.",
   "authors_year": "Mislevy, Almond & Lukas (2004 CRESST release; ETS lists the same paper as RR-03-16, 2003)",
   "source_title": "A Brief Introduction to Evidence-Centered Design (CSE Report 632, CRESST/UCLA), section 'What Happens Next: Activity Selection'",
   "url": "https://cresst.org/wp-content/uploads/R632.pdf",
   "page": "p. 16",
   "quote": "This process is responsible for deciding what the next task should be and when to stop the assessment.",
   "quote_words": 18,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D09": {
   "claim": "ECD's Assembly Model sets two things: targets for how accurately each skill must be measured, and constraints that keep the set of tasks balanced across the domain.",
   "authors_year": "Mislevy, Almond & Lukas (2004 CRESST release; ETS lists the same paper as RR-03-16, 2003)",
   "source_title": "A Brief Introduction to Evidence-Centered Design (CSE Report 632, CRESST/UCLA), section 'How Much Do We Need to Measure: The Assembly Model'",
   "url": "https://cresst.org/wp-content/uploads/R632.pdf",
   "page": "pp. 12-13",
   "quote": "Targets describe how accurately each student model variable must be measured, and constraints describe how tasks must be balanced",
   "quote_words": 19,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D10": {
   "claim": "A simulation study of stopping rules for computerized adaptive tests found that tests that were too short (mean length under 10 items) did not give good ability estimates in the low range of ability. The authors recommend combining variable stopping rules with a minimum number of items.",
   "authors_year": "Babcock & Weiss (2012)",
   "source_title": "Termination Criteria in Computerized Adaptive Tests: Do Variable-Length CATs Provide Efficient and Effective Measurement? Journal of Computerized Adaptive Testing 1(1), doi:10.7333/1212-0101001",
   "url": "https://jcatpub.net/index.php/jcat/article/download/16/3",
   "page": "printed p. 14 (PDF p. 15), Discussion (result); recommendation on printed p. 15 (PDF p. 16)",
   "quote": "CATs that were too short (e.g., mean length less than 10 items) did not give good θ estimates in low ranges of θ",
   "quote_words": 23,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D11": {
   "claim": "The DINA cognitive diagnosis model (Junker & Sijtsma, 2001, as described in an open Stan case study) includes a 'slip' probability (a wrong answer although the skill is mastered) and a 'guess' probability (a right answer although it is not).",
   "authors_year": "Lee, S. Y. (2017), describing Junker & Sijtsma (2001)",
   "source_title": "Cognitive Diagnosis Model (DINA), Stan case study",
   "url": "https://mc-stan.org/learn-stan/case-studies/dina_independent.html",
   "page": "Section 1.1 'Overview'",
   "quote": "The slip parameter s_i is the probability that respondent j responds incorrectly to item i although he or she has mastered all required attributes.",
   "quote_words": 24,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D12": {
   "claim": "The 2014 Standards (AERA, APA, NCME) say a reported result should explain, in plain language, what the assessment covers, what the results mean, how precise they are and how they are meant to be used.",
   "authors_year": "AERA, APA & NCME (2014)",
   "source_title": "Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (open-access PDF from the official site), Standard 6.10",
   "url": "https://www.testingstandards.net/uploads/7/6/6/4/76643089/standards_2014edition.pdf",
   "page": "p. 119",
   "quote": "describe in simple language what the test covers, what scores represent, the precision/reliability of the scores, and how scores are intended to be used",
   "quote_words": 24,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D13": {
   "claim": "The Standards say that in schools, a decision or description with a major impact on a student should not rest on one test alone. It should also draw on other relevant information, such as classroom observation and coursework.",
   "authors_year": "AERA, APA & NCME (2014)",
   "source_title": "Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (open-access PDF from the official site), Standard 12.10",
   "url": "https://www.testingstandards.net/uploads/7/6/6/4/76643089/standards_2014edition.pdf",
   "page": "p. 198",
   "quote": "a decision or characterization that will have major impact on a student should take into consideration not just scores from a single test",
   "quote_words": 23,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D14": {
   "claim": "For results used in placement-type decisions, the Standards say that where adequate empirical evidence is not available, users should be told to weigh the results accordingly.",
   "authors_year": "AERA, APA & NCME (2014)",
   "source_title": "Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (open-access PDF from the official site), Standard 12.13",
   "url": "https://www.testingstandards.net/uploads/7/6/6/4/76643089/standards_2014edition.pdf",
   "page": "p. 199",
   "quote": "When adequate empirical evidence is not available, users should be cautioned to weigh the test results accordingly in light of other relevant information",
   "quote_words": 23,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D15": {
   "claim": "The NRC report warns that believing ability is fixed can lead educators to label students, openly or quietly, as 'bright' or 'dull', and that tracking can then reinforce those labels.",
   "authors_year": "National Research Council (2001)",
   "source_title": "Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment (National Academies Press; doi:10.17226/10019), Ch. 6 'Assessment in Practice'",
   "url": "https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/10019/chapter/10",
   "page": "p. 235",
   "quote": "Such beliefs on the part of educators can lead both to the labeling—overtly or covertly—of students as “bright” or “dull”",
   "quote_words": 20,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D16": {
   "claim": "A 2025 open-access narrative review notes that teacher expectations have been shown to affect student outcomes. It reports large self-fulfilling prophecy effects for teachers with strong stereotypical bias.",
   "authors_year": "Rubie-Davies & Hattie (2024 online; 2025 issue)",
   "source_title": "The powerful impact of teacher expectations: a narrative review. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 55(2), 343-371, doi:10.1080/03036758.2024.2393296 (CC BY-NC-ND; University of Melbourne repository copy)",
   "url": "https://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/a9dd796b-2a37-4266-92dd-04564aa51285/content",
   "page": "p. 343",
   "quote": "Teacher expectations have been shown to affect student outcomes.",
   "quote_words": 9,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D17": {
   "claim": "Ontario's assessment policy puts teachers' professional judgement at the centre of assessment, evaluation and reporting.",
   "authors_year": "Ontario Ministry of Education (2010)",
   "source_title": "Growing Success: Assessment, Evaluation, and Reporting in Ontario Schools, First Edition, Grades 1 to 12",
   "url": "https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/growSuccess.pdf",
   "page": "p. 8 (Ch. 1 'Fundamental Principles')",
   "quote": "Teachers’ professional judgements are at the heart of effective assessment, evaluation, and reporting of student achievement.",
   "quote_words": 16,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "D18": {
   "claim": "Ontario policy says assessment for learning should be triangulated across observation, student-teacher conversations and student products.",
   "authors_year": "Ontario Ministry of Education (2010)",
   "source_title": "Growing Success: Assessment, Evaluation, and Reporting in Ontario Schools, First Edition, Grades 1 to 12, Ch. 4 'Assessment for Learning and as Learning'",
   "url": "https://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/growSuccess.pdf",
   "page": "p. 34",
   "quote": "These strategies should be triangulated to include observation, student-teacher conversations, and student products.",
   "quote_words": 13,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-01": {
   "claim": "In Falkner, Levi & Carpenter (1999), as described in Knuth et al. (2006), students in grades 1-6 solving 8 + 4 = [box] + 5 often answered 12 or 17: the left-side total, or the sum of every number shown. Both answers fit reading the equal sign as 'announce the result'.",
   "authors_year": "Knuth, Stephens, McNeil & Alibali 2006 (describing Falkner, Levi & Carpenter 1999)",
   "source_title": "Does Understanding the Equal Sign Matter? Evidence from Solving Equations (Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 37(4), 297-312)",
   "url": "https://alibali.psych.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/371/2018/02/KnuthStephensMcNeilAlibali2006.pdf",
   "page": "p. 298 (PDF p. 3)",
   "quote": "many students provided answers of 12, 17, or 12 and 17-answers that are consistent with an understanding of the equal sign as announcing a result",
   "quote_words": 25,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-02": {
   "claim": "Among middle school students, a relational understanding of the equal sign was associated with success at solving equations measured at the same time (a concurrent, not a later, link), and the association held after controlling for standardized mathematics test scores. The finding is correlational and does not show cause.",
   "authors_year": "Knuth, Stephens, McNeil & Alibali 2006",
   "source_title": "Does Understanding the Equal Sign Matter? Evidence from Solving Equations (Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 37(4), 297-312)",
   "url": "https://alibali.psych.wisc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/371/2018/02/KnuthStephensMcNeilAlibali2006.pdf",
   "page": "p. 297, abstract (PDF p. 2); the analysis controlling for test scores is on p. 305",
   "quote": "their understanding of the equal sign is associated with performance on equation-solving items. Moreover, the latter finding holds even when controlling for mathematics ability",
   "quote_words": 24,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-03": {
   "claim": "Many children read the equal sign as an operator signal, meaning 'adds up to' or 'gets the answer', and do not read it as a statement that both sides are equal.",
   "authors_year": "Matthews, Rittle-Johnson, McEldoon & Taylor 2012",
   "source_title": "Measure for Measure: What Combining Diverse Measures Reveals About Children's Understanding of the Equal Sign as an Indicator of Mathematical Equality (JRME 43(3), published pp. 316-350; the opened copy is an author manuscript with its own pagination)",
   "url": "https://faculty.weber.edu/eamsel/Research%20Groups/Math%20Research/Mathews%20et%20al.%20(2012).pdf",
   "page": "manuscript p. 222 (PDF p. 3)",
   "quote": "Children often interpret the equal sign as an operator signal that means “adds up to” or “gets the answer”",
   "quote_words": 19,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-04": {
   "claim": "Item format changes difficulty. In a Grades 2-6 sample (N = 224), equations with operations on both sides of the equal sign were harder than equations with operations on one side only.",
   "authors_year": "Matthews, Rittle-Johnson, McEldoon & Taylor 2012",
   "source_title": "Measure for Measure: What Combining Diverse Measures Reveals About Children's Understanding of the Equal Sign as an Indicator of Mathematical Equality (JRME 43(3), published pp. 316-350; the opened copy is an author manuscript with its own pagination)",
   "url": "https://faculty.weber.edu/eamsel/Research%20Groups/Math%20Research/Mathews%20et%20al.%20(2012).pdf",
   "page": "manuscript p. 234 (PDF p. 15)",
   "quote": "equations with operations on both sides were generally more difficult than equations with operations only on a single side",
   "quote_words": 19,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-05": {
   "claim": "Equal-sign research uses several distinct item types: open equations (8 + 4 = [box] + 5), equation-structure items (judging whether a number sentence is true or false) and requests to define the equal sign.",
   "authors_year": "Matthews, Rittle-Johnson, McEldoon & Taylor 2012",
   "source_title": "Measure for Measure: What Combining Diverse Measures Reveals About Children's Understanding of the Equal Sign as an Indicator of Mathematical Equality (JRME 43(3), published pp. 316-350; the opened copy is an author manuscript with its own pagination)",
   "url": "https://faculty.weber.edu/eamsel/Research%20Groups/Math%20Research/Mathews%20et%20al.%20(2012).pdf",
   "page": "manuscript p. 223 (PDF p. 4)",
   "quote": "(b) equation-structure items, such as deciding whether 3 + 5 = 5 + 3 is true or false",
   "quote_words": 18,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-06": {
   "claim": "Classifying children as passing or failing one type of item hides real differences in what they know. Matthews et al. argue for drawing on several item types.",
   "authors_year": "Matthews, Rittle-Johnson, McEldoon & Taylor 2012",
   "source_title": "Measure for Measure: What Combining Diverse Measures Reveals About Children's Understanding of the Equal Sign as an Indicator of Mathematical Equality (JRME 43(3), published pp. 316-350; the opened copy is an author manuscript with its own pagination)",
   "url": "https://faculty.weber.edu/eamsel/Research%20Groups/Math%20Research/Mathews%20et%20al.%20(2012).pdf",
   "page": "manuscript p. 226 (PDF p. 7)",
   "quote": "Either–or distinctions hide the within-group variability in the binary groups that result.",
   "quote_words": 12,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-07": {
   "claim": "In Grades 2-6, children with more advanced equal-sign knowledge were more likely to solve basic algebra items, including items with letters as variables (e.g., c + c + 4 = 16).",
   "authors_year": "Matthews, Rittle-Johnson, McEldoon & Taylor 2012",
   "source_title": "Measure for Measure: What Combining Diverse Measures Reveals About Children's Understanding of the Equal Sign as an Indicator of Mathematical Equality (JRME 43(3), published pp. 316-350; the opened copy is an author manuscript with its own pagination)",
   "url": "https://faculty.weber.edu/eamsel/Research%20Groups/Math%20Research/Mathews%20et%20al.%20(2012).pdf",
   "page": "manuscript p. 243 (PDF p. 24)",
   "quote": "Children with more advanced knowledge of the equal sign were more likely to solve both types of algebraic items correctly.",
   "quote_words": 20,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-08": {
   "claim": "In a randomized study (M age 8;0, N = 90), children who practised addition written in a nontraditional format (e.g., 17 = 9 + 8) developed a better understanding of mathematical equivalence than children who had traditional-format practice or no extra practice.",
   "authors_year": "McNeil, Fyfe, Petersen, Dunwiddie & Brletic-Shipley 2011 (ERIC abstract)",
   "source_title": "Benefits of Practicing 4 = 2 + 2: Nontraditional Problem Formats Facilitate Children's Understanding of Mathematical Equivalence (Child Development 82(5), 1620-1633), ERIC EJ938672",
   "url": "https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ938672",
   "page": "ERIC record, abstract",
   "quote": "Children developed a better understanding of mathematical equivalence after receiving nontraditional practice than after receiving traditional practice or no extra practice.",
   "quote_words": 21,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-09": {
   "claim": "The What Works Clearinghouse reviewed the McNeil et al. (2011) nontraditional-format study as a randomized controlled trial and gave it its highest rating. It reported statistically significant positive findings on defining the equal sign and on equation solving (60 students, grades 1-3, in the reviewed contrast).",
   "authors_year": "What Works Clearinghouse (IES), review dated April 2014, of McNeil et al. 2011",
   "source_title": "WWC review of this study: Benefits of Practicing 4 = 2 + 2 (Study 78771)",
   "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/WWC/Study/78771",
   "page": "Review Details, April 2014 review (Nontraditional Addition Problem Formats)",
   "quote": "Rating: Meets WWC standards without reservations",
   "quote_words": 6,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-10": {
   "claim": "Conceptual-change accounts of fraction learning, including Ni & Zhou (2005), emphasize a 'whole number bias': knowledge that works for whole numbers interferes when it is applied to fractions.",
   "authors_year": "Siegler, Thompson & Schneider 2011 (describing Ni & Zhou 2005)",
   "source_title": "An integrated theory of whole number and fractions development (Cognitive Psychology 62, 273-296)",
   "url": "https://www.uni-trier.de/fileadmin/fb1/prof/PSY/PAE/Forschung/SieglerEtAl2011.pdf",
   "page": "p. 274 (PDF p. 2)",
   "quote": "emphasizing how the “whole number bias” interferes with fractions learning",
   "quote_words": 10,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-10b": {
   "claim": "The same paper argues that fraction arithmetic errors often reflect confusion about the right strategy, together with a lack of constraints on answer size, rather than a consistent whole number bias or other systematic misunderstanding.",
   "authors_year": "Siegler, Thompson & Schneider 2011",
   "source_title": "An integrated theory of whole number and fractions development (Cognitive Psychology 62, 273-296)",
   "url": "https://www.uni-trier.de/fileadmin/fb1/prof/PSY/PAE/Forschung/SieglerEtAl2011.pdf",
   "page": "p. 292 (PDF p. 20)",
   "quote": "rather than a consistent whole number bias or other systematic misunderstanding",
   "quote_words": 11,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-11": {
   "claim": "The IES fractions practice guide names treating numerators and denominators as separate whole numbers as a common misconception. Its example is adding the tops and the bottoms (2/4 + 5/4 = 7/8), which it explains as misapplied whole-number addition.",
   "authors_year": "Siegler, Carpenter, Fennell, Geary, Lewis, Okamoto, Thompson & Wray 2010",
   "source_title": "Developing Effective Fractions Instruction for Kindergarten Through 8th Grade (IES/WWC Practice Guide, NCEE 2010-4039)",
   "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/WWC/Docs/PracticeGuide/fractions_pg_093010.pdf",
   "page": "p. 32 (PDF p. 38), Recommendation 3",
   "quote": "Students who err in this way are misapplying their knowledge of whole number addition and subtraction to fraction problems",
   "quote_words": 19,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-12": {
   "claim": "The IES guide describes a closely related error: changing a fraction's denominator without making the matching change to the numerator. Its example is fraction addition; applying it to equivalence (our \"changed only the bottom\" tag) is our inference.",
   "authors_year": "Siegler, Carpenter, Fennell, Geary, Lewis, Okamoto, Thompson & Wray 2010",
   "source_title": "Developing Effective Fractions Instruction for Kindergarten Through 8th Grade (IES/WWC Practice Guide, NCEE 2010-4039)",
   "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/WWC/Docs/PracticeGuide/fractions_pg_093010.pdf",
   "page": "p. 32 (PDF p. 38), Recommendation 3",
   "quote": "error of changing the denominator of a fraction without making the corresponding change to the numerator",
   "quote_words": 16,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-13": {
   "claim": "The IES panel considers it critical to identify students who hold specific fraction misconceptions, to discuss those misconceptions with them, and to make clear why they lead to wrong answers.",
   "authors_year": "Siegler, Carpenter, Fennell, Geary, Lewis, Okamoto, Thompson & Wray 2010",
   "source_title": "Developing Effective Fractions Instruction for Kindergarten Through 8th Grade (IES/WWC Practice Guide, NCEE 2010-4039)",
   "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/WWC/Docs/PracticeGuide/fractions_pg_093010.pdf",
   "page": "p. 31 (PDF p. 37), Recommendation 3",
   "quote": "it is critical to identify students who are operating with such misconceptions, to discuss the misconceptions with them",
   "quote_words": 18,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-14": {
   "claim": "The IES guide recommends using number lines to teach fraction equivalence: equivalent fractions are the same point (the same magnitude) on the line.",
   "authors_year": "Siegler, Carpenter, Fennell, Geary, Lewis, Okamoto, Thompson & Wray 2010",
   "source_title": "Developing Effective Fractions Instruction for Kindergarten Through 8th Grade (IES/WWC Practice Guide, NCEE 2010-4039)",
   "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/WWC/Docs/PracticeGuide/fractions_pg_093010.pdf",
   "page": "p. 23 (PDF p. 29), Recommendation 2, step 3",
   "quote": "Number lines can be used to illustrate that equivalent fractions describe the same magnitude.",
   "quote_words": 14,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-15": {
   "claim": "Honest limit: the IES panel says its evidence for the number-line recommendation comes mainly from studies of whole numbers (plus one decimals study), not from studies of fractions.",
   "authors_year": "Siegler, Carpenter, Fennell, Geary, Lewis, Okamoto, Thompson & Wray 2010",
   "source_title": "Developing Effective Fractions Instruction for Kindergarten Through 8th Grade (IES/WWC Practice Guide, NCEE 2010-4039)",
   "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/WWC/Docs/PracticeGuide/fractions_pg_093010.pdf",
   "page": "p. 20 (PDF p. 26), Recommendation 2, Summary of evidence",
   "quote": "Evidence for this recommendation primarily comes from studies demonstrating the usefulness of number lines for developing number sense with whole numbers.",
   "quote_words": 21,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-16": {
   "claim": "The IES fractions guide recommends area models, number lines and other visual representations to help students understand why fraction procedures work (Recommendation 3, rated Moderate Evidence).",
   "authors_year": "Siegler, Carpenter, Fennell, Geary, Lewis, Okamoto, Thompson & Wray 2010",
   "source_title": "Developing Effective Fractions Instruction for Kindergarten Through 8th Grade (IES/WWC Practice Guide, NCEE 2010-4039)",
   "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/WWC/Docs/PracticeGuide/fractions_pg_093010.pdf",
   "page": "p. 1 (PDF p. 7), Review of Recommendations, Recommendation 3",
   "quote": "Use area models, number lines, and other visual representations to improve students’ understanding of formal computational procedures.",
   "quote_words": 17,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-17": {
   "claim": "The IES practice guide on using student data describes a cycle: interpret the data and form hypotheses, change instruction to test them, then collect and interpret new data to evaluate the change. The panel rates its evidence for this recommendation as Low.",
   "authors_year": "Hamilton, Halverson, Jackson, Mandinach, Supovitz & Wayman 2009",
   "source_title": "Using Student Achievement Data to Support Instructional Decision Making (IES/WWC Practice Guide, NCEE 2009-4067)",
   "url": "https://web.education.wisc.edu/halverson/wp-content/uploads/sites/33/2012/09/What-Works-DDDM-Report-093009.pdf",
   "page": "p. 10 (PDF p. 16), Recommendation 1",
   "quote": "Finally, they should restart the cycle by collecting and interpreting new student performance data to evaluate their own instructional changes.",
   "quote_words": 20,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "MATH-18": {
   "claim": "The IES practice guide on organizing instruction recommends re-exposing students to key content after a delay of several weeks to several months, because delayed re-exposure often markedly increases how much they remember (Moderate Evidence).",
   "authors_year": "Pashler, Bain, Bottge, Graesser, Koedinger, McDaniel & Metcalfe 2007",
   "source_title": "Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student Learning (IES Practice Guide, NCER 2007-2004)",
   "url": "https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/PracticeGuide/20072004.pdf",
   "page": "p. 5 (PDF p. 16), Recommendation 1",
   "quote": "exposed to key course concepts on at least two occasions—separated by a period of several weeks to several months",
   "quote_words": 19,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-01": {
   "claim": "CAST's current UDL Guidelines (version 3.0) list adjustable font, text size, spacing, background colour and text colour as ways to let learners customize how information is displayed.",
   "authors_year": "CAST, 2024",
   "source_title": "CAST (2024). CAST Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 3.0 - Consideration 1.1: Support opportunities to customize the display of information",
   "url": "https://udlguidelines.cast.org/representation/perception/customize-display/",
   "page": "Consideration 1.1, implementation examples; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "Font, size of text, character and line spacing, character width, background color, and text colors",
   "quote_words": 15,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-02": {
   "claim": "UDL 3.0 identifies turning text into audio as one of the easiest ways to increase access to text.",
   "authors_year": "CAST, 2024",
   "source_title": "CAST (2024). CAST Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 3.0 - Consideration 1.2: Support multiple ways to perceive information",
   "url": "https://udlguidelines.cast.org/representation/perception/ways-perceive-information/",
   "page": "Consideration 1.2, paragraph on text as visual information; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "The transformation from text into audio is among the most easily accomplished methods for increasing accessibility.",
   "quote_words": 16,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-03": {
   "claim": "UDL 3.0 recommends offering several physical ways to respond, including keyboard and switch-style inputs, rather than a single input method.",
   "authors_year": "CAST, 2024",
   "source_title": "CAST (2024). CAST Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 3.0 - Consideration 4.1: Vary and honor the methods for response, navigation, and movement",
   "url": "https://udlguidelines.cast.org/action-expression/interaction/response-navigation-movement/",
   "page": "Consideration 4.1, implementation examples; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "Offer options for physically interacting with materials by hand, voice, single switch, joystick, keyboard, or adapted keyboard.",
   "quote_words": 17,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-04": {
   "claim": "UDL 3.0 recommends feedback that is substantive and informative, not comparative or competitive.",
   "authors_year": "CAST, 2024",
   "source_title": "CAST (2024). CAST Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 3.0 - Consideration 8.5: Offer action-oriented feedback",
   "url": "https://udlguidelines.cast.org/engagement/effort-persistence/feedback/",
   "page": "Consideration 8.5, implementation examples; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "Offer feedback that is substantive and informative rather than comparative or competitive.",
   "quote_words": 12,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-05": {
   "claim": "UDL 3.0 lists variation in pace, session length and access to breaks as ways to reduce threats and distractions in learning.",
   "authors_year": "CAST, 2024",
   "source_title": "CAST (2024). CAST Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 3.0 - Consideration 7.4: Address biases, threats, and distractions",
   "url": "https://udlguidelines.cast.org/engagement/interests-identities/biases-threats-distractions/",
   "page": "Consideration 7.4, implementation examples; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "Variation in pace of work, length of work sessions, availability of breaks or time-outs, or timing or sequence of activities",
   "quote_words": 20,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-06": {
   "claim": "WCAG 2.2 has been a W3C Recommendation since 12 December 2024, and the W3C working group recommends adopting 2.2 as the conformance target even where policy names an earlier version.",
   "authors_year": "W3C Accessibility Guidelines Working Group, 2024",
   "source_title": "Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.2, W3C Recommendation 12 December 2024",
   "url": "https://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG22/",
   "page": "Introduction, \"New Features in WCAG 2.2\"; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "The Accessibility Guidelines Working Group recommends that sites adopt WCAG 2.2 as their new conformance target, even if formal obligations mention previous versions",
   "quote_words": 23,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-07": {
   "claim": "WCAG 2.2 (Level AA) requires that anything done by dragging can also be done with a single pointer without dragging.",
   "authors_year": "W3C Accessibility Guidelines Working Group, 2024",
   "source_title": "Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.2, W3C Recommendation 12 December 2024",
   "url": "https://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG22/#dragging-movements",
   "page": "Success Criterion 2.5.7 Dragging Movements (AA); accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "All functionality that uses a dragging movement for operation can be achieved by a single pointer without dragging",
   "quote_words": 18,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-08": {
   "claim": "WCAG 2.2 (Level AA) says sign-in must not depend on a cognitive function test, such as remembering a password, unless an alternative or assisting mechanism is provided; the criterion lists further exceptions (object recognition, personal content).",
   "authors_year": "W3C Accessibility Guidelines Working Group, 2024",
   "source_title": "Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.2, W3C Recommendation 12 December 2024",
   "url": "https://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG22/#accessible-authentication-minimum",
   "page": "Success Criterion 3.3.8 Accessible Authentication (Minimum) (AA); accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "A cognitive function test (such as remembering a password or solving a puzzle) is not required for any step in an authentication process",
   "quote_words": 23,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-09": {
   "claim": "In October 2025, Canada's federal, provincial and territorial privacy regulators jointly called on school boards to use privacy-protective settings by default in EdTech and to support pseudonyms, generic logins or anonymous profiles.",
   "authors_year": "Federal, Provincial and Territorial Privacy Commissioners and Ombuds, 2025",
   "source_title": "Protecting the privacy of children and youth through responsible use of educational technologies in the classroom (joint resolution, Banff, 8 October 2025)",
   "url": "https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/about-the-opc/what-we-do/provincial-and-territorial-collaboration/joint-resolutions-with-provinces-and-territories/res_20251008_edtech/",
   "page": "Calls to school boards, post-secondary institutions and administrators; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "ensure that products and services are secure, use privacy protective settings by default, and support the use of pseudonyms and generic logins or anonymous profiles",
   "quote_words": 25,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-10": {
   "claim": "The same 2025 joint resolution asks EdTech vendors to collect, use, disclose or keep children's personal information only as necessary and proportionate for delivering educational services.",
   "authors_year": "Federal, Provincial and Territorial Privacy Commissioners and Ombuds, 2025",
   "source_title": "Protecting the privacy of children and youth through responsible use of educational technologies in the classroom (joint resolution, Banff, 8 October 2025)",
   "url": "https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/about-the-opc/what-we-do/provincial-and-territorial-collaboration/joint-resolutions-with-provinces-and-territories/res_20251008_edtech/",
   "page": "Calls to EdTech vendors; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "Only collect, use, disclose or retain the personal information of children and youth as is necessary and proportionate for the delivery of educational services.",
   "quote_words": 24,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-11": {
   "claim": "The 2025 joint resolution names profiling and inference as a key EdTech risk, including predictions about performance that could shape a child's educational path in advance.",
   "authors_year": "Federal, Provincial and Territorial Privacy Commissioners and Ombuds, 2025",
   "source_title": "Protecting the privacy of children and youth through responsible use of educational technologies in the classroom (joint resolution, Banff, 8 October 2025)",
   "url": "https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/about-the-opc/what-we-do/provincial-and-territorial-collaboration/joint-resolutions-with-provinces-and-territories/res_20251008_edtech/",
   "page": "Context, \"Profiling and inferences\"; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "make predictions about performance which could impact a child’s classroom experience and pre-emptively shape their educational path",
   "quote_words": 17,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-12": {
   "claim": "The 2025 joint resolution asks EdTech vendors to use clear, accessible language so that children and youth can understand what is done with their personal information.",
   "authors_year": "Federal, Provincial and Territorial Privacy Commissioners and Ombuds, 2025",
   "source_title": "Protecting the privacy of children and youth through responsible use of educational technologies in the classroom (joint resolution, Banff, 8 October 2025)",
   "url": "https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/about-the-opc/what-we-do/provincial-and-territorial-collaboration/joint-resolutions-with-provinces-and-territories/res_20251008_edtech/",
   "page": "Calls to EdTech vendors; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "Use clear and accessible language for all users, especially children and youth, so that they can understand what is being done with their personal information.",
   "quote_words": 25,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-13": {
   "claim": "The Information and Privacy Commissioner of Ontario's Digital Privacy Charter for Ontario Schools includes a pledge to make privacy-protective settings the default in digital education tools.",
   "authors_year": "Information and Privacy Commissioner of Ontario, 2024",
   "source_title": "Digital Privacy Charter for Ontario Schools (printable). The PDF text carries no date; the year 2024 and the date 2024-07-04 come only from the PDF's URL path.",
   "url": "https://www.ipc.on.ca/sites/default/files/documents/2024-07-04-Digital%20Privacy%20Charter-8pt5x14.pdf",
   "page": "Single page, \"Protection\" pledge item 5; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "Strengthening privacy protections in digital education tools and services, including by making privacy-protective settings the default when using them",
   "quote_words": 19,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-14": {
   "claim": "US Department of Education guidance recommends that parents request records held by a provider through the school or district, which obtains them from the provider, instead of the provider authenticating parents itself.",
   "authors_year": "U.S. Department of Education, Privacy Technical Assistance Center, 2014",
   "source_title": "Protecting Student Privacy While Using Online Educational Services: Requirements and Best Practices (PTAC-FAQ-3, February 2014)",
   "url": "https://studentprivacy.ed.gov/sites/default/files/resource_document/file/Student%20Privacy%20and%20Online%20Educational%20Services%20%28February%202014%29_0.pdf",
   "page": "p. 9, \"Data Access Provisions\"; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "the Department recommends that the school or district serve as the intermediary for these requests",
   "quote_words": 15,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-15": {
   "claim": "Under the US COPPA Rule as described by the FTC (which concerns children under 13), personal information includes a persistent identifier that can recognize a user over time and across different websites or online services. The guidance does not say whether a classroom alias meets this definition; 1080 treats aliases as personal information as a precaution.",
   "authors_year": "Federal Trade Commission (page notes the Rule was amended April 22, 2025)",
   "source_title": "Complying with COPPA: Frequently Asked Questions",
   "url": "https://www.ftc.gov/business-guidance/resources/complying-coppa-frequently-asked-questions",
   "page": "Section A.3, \"What is Personal Information?\"; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "A persistent identifier that can be used to recognize a user over time and across different websites or online services",
   "quote_words": 20,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-16": {
   "claim": "In a randomized field experiment, weekly one-sentence individualized teacher messages to parents reduced the share of students failing to earn credit, mainly by preventing drop-outs, and messages about what students could improve had the largest effects (as described in the published abstract).",
   "authors_year": "Kraft & Rogers, 2015",
   "source_title": "The underutilized potential of teacher-to-parent communication: Evidence from a field experiment. Economics of Education Review, 47, 49-63 (abstract as shown on RePEc/IDEAS)",
   "url": "https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/ecoedu/v47y2015icp49-63.html",
   "page": "Abstract; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "messages emphasizing what students could improve, versus what students were doing well, producing the largest effects",
   "quote_words": 16,
   "open_access": false,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-17": {
   "claim": "Kraft reports, from US national survey data, that school email to families at or below the poverty line stayed flat after 2007 while the income gap in email contact widened.",
   "authors_year": "Kraft, 2016",
   "source_title": "The Underutilized Potential of Teacher-Parent Communication. Communities & Banking (Federal Reserve Bank of Boston), Spring 2016",
   "url": "https://www.bostonfed.org/-/media/Documents/cb/The-Underutilized-Potential-of-Teacher-Parent-Communication.pdf",
   "page": "p. 15 (PDF p. 1); accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "Email communication with families living at or below the poverty line has remained flat since 2007.",
   "quote_words": 16,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  },
  "EQ-18": {
   "claim": "The READY4K! text-message program for parents of preschoolers sent short, simple, highly specific activities built on existing family routines; its randomized evaluation reports gains in parental involvement and early literacy (see abstract at nber.org/papers/w20659).",
   "authors_year": "York & Loeb, 2014 (rev. 2018)",
   "source_title": "One Step at a Time: The Effects of an Early Literacy Text Messaging Program for Parents of Preschoolers. NBER Working Paper 20659",
   "url": "https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w20659/w20659.pdf",
   "page": "PDF p. 13, intervention description; abstract states \"increased parental involvement at home and school by 0.15 to 0.29 standard deviations\"; accessed 2026-10-05",
   "quote": "These texts include short, simple, and highly specific activities for parents to do with their children that build on existing family routines.",
   "quote_words": 22,
   "open_access": true,
   "accessed": "2026-10-05"
  }
 }
}